Daily Times

Syria, a land with a deeply entrenched history of cultural diversity, has long been a nexus of civilizations, empires, and conflict. What we witness today, marked by profound division and strife, is not unprecedented in its historical narrative. From ancient times, Syria has been home to a mosaic of ethnicities, religions, and languages, shaping its complex identity.

During the Middle Assyrian Empire (365-1050 BC), Syria, apart from the Assyrian northeast corner, was known as “The Land of the Amorites.” In the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-605 BC), it was referred to as Eber Nari and Aram. Over millennia, the region was ruled by a series of empires and dynasties, including the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids, Seljuk Turks, Zengids, Ayyubids, Mamluks, Ottomans, and the French. Each ruling power left an indelible mark on the cultural and social fabric of Syria.

Historically, ‘Syria’ often referred to the northern Levant, encompassing modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus, and parts of Turkey. This broad definition highlights the region’s significance as a cultural and geographical crossroads. The Arabic name for Syria, Ash-Sh?m or Sh?m, also refers to Greater Syria, underlining its historical and cultural connection to the broader Levant.

Following the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I, Syria came under French mandate, representing the largest Arab state emerging from Ottoman territories. During the early Middle Ages (3rd to 7th centuries), Syria’s boundaries extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates River and from the Arabian Desert to the Taurus Mountains, reflecting its vast and diverse geography.

Syria’s future hinges on reconciling its diverse communities and navigating external interventions.

Modern Syria’s population is a tapestry of influences. The Greek and Roman ethnic imprints are minimal compared to the more dominant Semitic roots from Arabia and Mesopotamia. These include the Aramaeans, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Canaanites, whose legacy persists in Syria’s cultural heritage. Syria’s religious diversity mirrors its ethnic complexity. Approximately 90 percent of the population is Muslim, predominantly Sunni (74 percent), with minorities including Alawites, Shi’as, and Druze (16 percent). Christians account for about 10 percent, while a small Jewish community survives.

Ethnically, Arabs constitute 90 percent of the population, including approximately 400,000 Palestinian refugees. The Kurdish minority, numbering around 2.5 million, predominantly resides along the Syrian-Turkish border and speaks Kurdish (primarily the Kurmanji dialect), though many have assimilated into Arab society. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims, with many tracing their origins to Turkish Kurds who migrated in the 20th century.

Syria’s political history is deeply intertwined with the Assad family’s rule. Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite – a minority sect comprising about 15 percent of the population – rose to power through military dominance, ruling from 1971 until his death in 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, an ophthalmologist by training, succeeded him and continues to govern amid persistent challenges to his authority. The Alawite dominance has long been a source of resentment among the Sunni majority.

The civil war, ignited during the 2011 Arab Spring, has been a battleground for international and regional powers. On 22 September 2014, the United States launched Operation Inherent Resolve to combat ISIS, marking its official intervention. Meanwhile, Russia’s military intervention, commencing on 30 September 2015 at Assad’s request, bolstered the regime’s fight against the opposition and ISIS. Russian airstrikes targeted opposition strongholds, including Free Syrian Army factions and Sunni militant coalitions.

Israel, with US backing, has also played a strategic role, particularly concerning the Golan Heights. This territory remains a focal point of contention, reflecting broader geopolitical rivalries.

Syria is now a fractured nation, divided among three primary factions:

Opposition Forces: Led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), a Sunni Islamist militant group, these factions are backed by Turkey. Their control extends from northern Syria to the southern border with Jordan. Despite sharing a Sunni identity, internal conflicts among these groups could impede the formation of a unified government.

Kurdish Groups: Controlling northeastern Syria, these factions receive US support, including military bases. This backing, however, strains US-Turkey relations, as Turkey views Kurdish empowerment as a threat to its territorial integrity.

Alawite Factions: Loyal to Assad, these groups dominate coastal regions in western Syria. Their ties with Iran and Hezbollah highlight ongoing sectarian divides and external influences.

The emergence of Abu Mohammed al-Jolani, a former jihadist leader turned head of Hayat Tahrir-Sham (HTS), exemplifies Syria’s volatile leadership dynamics. Jolani’s transformation-from his Al-Qaeda and ISIS affiliations to presenting himself as a legitimate political leader-underscores the complexity of Syria’s power struggles. HTS-backed interim leaders now claim control, but their ability to govern remains uncertain amid internal divisions and external pressures.

The end of Assad’s military dictatorship does not guarantee peace. Syria’s future hinges on reconciling its diverse communities and navigating external interventions. Regional rivalries, including those between Iran-backed Hezbollah and Saudi-supported Sunni factions, further complicate prospects for stability.

Ultimately, Syria’s enduring divisions-rooted in its ancient and modern history-highlight the challenges of forging unity in a land of profound diversity. While the Assad era may have ended, the road to peace and stability remains long and fraught with obstacles.

The writer is a Sydney-based journalist, analyst, writer and author. Email: shassan@tribune-intl.com