Daily Times

The present article is an attempt
to understand and conceptualiseradicalisation in order to explain acts of terrorism that the world, including Pakistan, is suffering from. Follow up articles will try to explain causes, consequences, degrees, modes and measures to contain and curbthe radicalisation of Pakistani society and the state.
To begin with, radicalisation isgenerally defined as, “The phenomenon of people embracing opinions, views and ideas that could lead to acts of terrorism.”Radicalisation does not occur overnight but is a gradual process without a clearly defined beginning and end. In some cases, it occurs very rapidly; in others, it takes years of indoctrination. Various factors contribute to an individual’s development of radical ideas and attitude. Nevertheless, it is not necessary that all radicals are involved in terror activities. Interestingly, some radicals have never carried out acts of terrorism though all terrorists are radicals. There are multiple factors behind radicalisation mentioned in existing literature, which include relative deprivation, the west’s support for dictatorial regimes in the third world, identity crisis, lack of political and socio-economic integration and psychological disorder.
To begin with, the political climate at the global, national and local level greatly contributes to the process of radicalisation. The political system of a country creates both autonomy as well as constraints for its inhabitants, which can be gauged from their behaviour. For example, in a democratic system, the people have more freedom to express their opinions compared to a dictatorial regime where such freedom is severely suppressed. Moreover, poor integration in the political system of a country is a major cause behind radicalisation. The European Monitoring Centre(EUMC) on Racism and Xenophobia opined in a study conducted in 2006 that the Muslim communities in Europe are not completely integrated. The respondents blamed EU member states for neglecting their Muslim minorities. Similarly, according to Baumeister and Twenge, people who are socially and politically neglected are generally involved in anti-social behaviour and adopt aggressive attitudes.
Besides, different political events have played a central role in incubating Muslim fundamentalism at the local and global level. Muslims around the world feel that the war against terror is actually a war against Islam and the Muslims.For example, Aiman al-Zawahri depictedthe war against terror as a new crusade against the Muslims. From such a linear angle, the Arab-Israeli conflict and the diplomatic position of western governments over it has contributed toradicalisation in the Arab world. Its reverberations can be felt all over the Muslim world. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq provided an opportunity to alQaeda and other terrorist organisations to swell their ranks and target western interests and their local sympathisers.
However, the estranged political worldview based on limited human rights has its explanatory limitations. Therefore, scholars such as Gurr, Portes, Muller and Franz have pointed towards povertyas being the major cause of radicalisation and terrorism. However, some studies on radicalisation in the western context suggest that such stratification is very difficult as radicals hail from all socioeconomic classes. Prominent among those who oppose the poverty-radicalisation nexus are Hess, Brock Blomberg and Weerapana. However, they do argue that the likelihood of terrorism increases during times of economic deprivation. If a person is exposed to some radical organisation during such a time, he/she is likely to get involved in terrorist activities. In the context of Pakistan, different radical organisations have been successful in reaching the lower segment of society for whom terrorism becomes the most attractive behavioural alternative.
Although different scholars are not on the same page as far as the nexus between poverty and radicalisation is concerned, we may argue that there are some intervening variables responsible for pushing the economically marginalised towards radicalisation and terrorism. There are those who, despite being poor,are not involved in radical activities. Here, some authors argue that relative-not absolute- deprivation causes radicalisation. Put differently, the feelings of injustice and ill-treatmentagainst the reference group among some people forces them towards radicalisation and terrorism.
The foregoing can be applied to the Muslims of the world at a broader level for they generally feel humiliation, discrimination and stigmatisation of their religion and culture/identity. In this respect, a report published by EUMC in 2006 on discrimination against Muslims in European countries concludes, “It is evident that Muslims often experience various levels of discrimination and marginalisation in employment, education and housing, and are also victims of negative stereotyping and prejudicial attitudes.”The EUMC report holds such a discriminatory attitude against Muslims as the major cause of their lack of integration into European culture. In addition, the wave of globalisation and modernisation has facilitated interaction among different religions and cultures, increasing the likelihood of inter-ethnic conflicts. The forces of globalisation and modernisation have pushed Muslims onto the receiving end as they are least equipped to counter the westernisation of their societies. To counter this, Muslim radicals are using the products of globalisation, i.e. global communication networks, for transnational ideological movements that spread jihadist messages.
According to Benjamin Barber, globalisation has sharpened the division between the haves and have-nots, and confronts Muslims with values that are refuted by the holy Quran and their culture. Globalisation has changed the relationship ofMuslims towards Islam. According to Oliver Roy, the borders between Islam and the west have become increasingly vague, resulting in de-territorialisation. The religious disconnectedness from a specific culture or territory has created a new form of religiosity where new communities assemble themselves exclusively around religion.The new ummah (Muslim community) has become a virtual community. The new global Islam has attracted a lot of disgruntled Muslim youth to rally around religion and vent their grievances against the west.
Last but not least, emotional experiences at the individual level also contribute towards radical behaviour. Feelings of humiliation, shame and guilt lead to acts of terrorism. For example, Osama bin Laden, in his “declaration of war”, mentioned time and again that “death is better than life in humiliation”. There are many more who believe in his ideology individually, if not collectively. To summarise the above, the idea and practice of radicalisation needs further conceptualisation. The existing accounts point to the multiplicity of factors of which (religious) ideology based on an estranged worldview of the socio-economically “marginalised” provide enough material to such an individual who is willing to adopt it and enforce it on others. As regards the Muslims, the majority views itself as being victimised and terrorised in the (western) world. Such a worldview has the potential to indoctrinate given an enabling environment. More on thisnext Saturday.

(To be continued)

Ejaz Hussain is an independent political scientist and the author of Military Agency, Politics and the State in Pakistan. He tweets @ejazbhatty. Maqbool Ahmed Wasli is a security and development consultant based in Islamabad. He can be reached at maqbool.ir@gmail.com